Unit+04+Review+-+The+Byzantine+Empire+and+Medieval+Europe

** AP World History – Fall [A] ** __Directions__: The Identification Questions will help your grade if you know the Who, What, When, Where, and Why for each of these items. Be thorough answering these questions. Many of them require answers of more than five contiguous sentences. Remember to eliminate the links if you’re copying and pasting from other sources. Theodora was the empress of the Roman Empire. She was the wife of Justinian. She ruled as his partner, her intelligence helped advance the empire. For example she passed laws forbidding prostitution and make homes for prostitutes.She made those homes for them because she wasone. She passed laws that gave women more rights in divorce cases. Along side her husband she helped build bridges and more than 25 churches. He was a Byzantine Emperor from the Macedonian dynasty from (roughly) 960 to 976. The early years of his long reign were dominated by civil war against powerful generals from the Anatolian aristocracy. Following their submission, Basil oversaw the stabilization and expansion of the eastern frontier of the Byzantine Empire, and above all, the final and complete subjugation of Bulgaria, the Empire's foremost European foe, after a prolonged struggle. For this he was nicknamed by later authors as "the Bulgar-Slayer" by which he is popularly known. At his death, the Empire stretched from Southern Italy to the Caucasus and from the Danube to the borders of Palestine, its greatest territorial extent since the Muslim conquests four centuries earlier.
 * Questions for Byzantine Empire, Kievan Rus, and Medieval Europe **
 * __ Identification: __**
 * Baker - **Justinian
 * Ifasso - **
 * Banfield - **Basil II (the Bulgar Slayer)

From the date of its construction in 537 until 1453, it served as an Eastern Orthodox cathedral and seat of the Patriarchate of Constantinople, except between 1204 and 1261, when it was converted to a Roman Catholic cathedral under the Latin Empire. The building was a mosque from 29 May 1453 until 1931. It was then secularized and opened as a museum on 1 February 1935. They were the leaders of the Christian churches in the cities of Rome, Jerusalem, Constantinople, Alexandria, and Antioch. These five were supposed to lead the entire Christendom. They were all in important places politically and(/or religiously, in the case of Jerusalem) and were important centers of the church. The idea was formed by Justinain I, but the Quinisext Council (692) gave them formal recognition. Eastern Christians accepted this, but Westerns did not. When East and West Rome split and the Roman Empire (aka Byzantine Empire) was formed, the Patriarch in Rome was a bit left out, and wasn't really a part of the Roman Empire anymore. So, to get back his power, the Pope in the west crowned Charlemagne the Holy Roman Emperor. This downgraded the power of the Roman Empire and in turn the Patriarchs in the four other cites, causing a long fight for power between the "Holy Roman Empire" and the "Roman (Byzantine) Empire". One of the defining features of Belisarius' career was his success despite varying levels of support from Justinian. His name is frequently given as one of the so-called "Last of the Romans". Constantine became senior Emperor when his father died in 641. He reigned together with his younger half-brother Heraklonas, the son of Martina. His supporters feared action against him on the part of Martina and Heraklonas, and the treasurer Philagrius advised him to write to the army, informing them that he was dying and asking for their assistance in protecting the rights of his children. He also sent a vast sum of money, more than two million solidi(gold coins), to Valentinus, an adjutant of Philagrius, to distribute to the soldiers to persuade them to secure the succession for his sons after his death. Indeed, he died of tuberculosis after only four months, leaving Heraklonas sole emperor. A rumor that Martina had him poisoned led first to the imposition of Constans II as co-emperor and then to the deposition, mutilation, and banishment of Martina and her sons. The Seljuk Turkish history spanned the period from 1060 to around 1307. The Seljuks were a tribe of Tartars from Central Asia who established a powerful empire in Persia in the 11th century. They captured Baghdad in 1055. The Caliph of Baghdad was so impressed with their strength and skill that he made their leader, Tugrul Bey his deputy and conferred on him the title of "King of East and West". The Seljuks however assumed they were the rightful owners of all land conquered during the time of Prophet Mohammed and were keen to extend their kingdom. So a contingent of around 5000 moved into eastern Anatolia and left their mark there for some time.
 * Suarez - **The Greens and the Blues-
 * Ingle - **Hagia Sophia- great architectural beauty and an important monument both for Byzantine and for Ottoman Empires. Once a church, later a mosque.
 * Traylor - **Ceasaropapism- The political system in which the head of the state is also the head of the church and the supreme judge in religious matters. Basically, it is a theocracy. Most modern historians recognize that the legal Byzantine texts speak of both needing each other between the imperial and ecclesiastical structures rather than of a unilateral dependence of the latter. Historians believe also that there was nothing in the Byzantine understanding of the Christian faith that would recognize the emperor as either doctrinally infallible or invested with priestly powers. Many historical instances of direct imperial pressure on the church ended in failure. (John Chrysostom and most other authoritative Byzantine theologians denied imperial power over the church.)
 * Feagan - **the Patriarchates
 * Franco - **Belisarius was a general of the Byzantine Empire. He was instrumental to Emperor Justinian's ambitious project of reconquering much of the Mediterranean territory of the former Western Roman Empire, which had been lost less than a century previously.
 * Mattes - **Constantine
 * Juell - **Seljuk Turks

=== Iconoclastic struggles – One of The Ten Commandments in the Old Testament is interpreted to forbid the worship of “graven Images.” Contrastingly, the Byzantine Empire focused on powerful and richly colored paintings and a tradition of icon painting-paintings of saints and other religious figures, often richly ornamented. The controversy over religious art arose in the 8th century, when a new emperor attacked the use of religious images in worship (probably responding to Muslim Clams that Christians were idol worshipers). This attack was called iconoclasm (the breaking of images), roused huge protest from byzantine monks, which briefly threatened a split between church and state. After a long and complex battle, the use of icons was gradually restored, and the tradition of state control over church affairs was reasserted. === Kievan Rus' begins with the rule (882–912) of Prince Oleg, who extended his control from Novgorod south along the Dnieper river valley in order to protect trade from Khazar incursions from the east and moved his capital to the more strategic Kiev. Sviatoslav I (died 972) achieved the first major expansion of Kievan Rus' territorial control. Vladimir the Great (980–1015) introduced Christianity with his own baptism and, by decree, that of all the inhabitants of Kiev and beyond. Kievan Rus' reached its greatest extent under Yaroslav I (1019–1054); his sons assembled and issued its first written legal code, the Rus' Justice, shortly after his death. The state declined beginning in the late 11th century and during the 12th century, disintegrating into various rival regional powers. It was further weakened by economic factors such as the collapse of Rus' commercial ties to Byzantium due to the decline of Constantinople and the accompanying diminution of trade routes through its territory. The state finally fell to the Mongol invasion of the 1240s The Great Schism of 1054-- The Great Schism was the split between the East and West Christian church. It was between the Greek speaking Eastern of the Byzantine Empire and the Latin speaking west traditions with Christian churches. The Great schism of 1054 was a terminal crisis. The two sides of the church split along doctrinal, political, geographical, linguistic, and theological lines. Because of this split, the development of the Roman Catholic and Eastern Orthodox church. The central people in this split were Michael Cerulgarious ( the patriarch of Constanipole) and Leo IX (the Pope of Rome). Attempts later on to reconnect the two churches failed through multiple tries.
 * King - **Ottoman Turks- Formed the base of the state's military and ruling classes. The founder, Osman I ruled 1299-1326 and his dynasty ruled for 624 years. **VERY IMPORTANT**: The Ottoman Turks blocked all land routes to Europe by conquering Constantinople in 1453, and the Europeans had to find other ways to trade. **Ah ha!** Instead of the long land route, try **THE OCEAN**- **Enter Christopher Columbus**. This marked the end of the Roman Empire, aka the **end of the Classical Era and the beginning of the Renaissance period**. (Many scholars that lived in Constantinople moved to Italy in fear of being robbed by Ottomans, who sacked the city for 3 days, which **influenced the Renaissance**. Those who stayed behind where capable advisers to Ottoman Rulers.) By conquering Constantinople, it **threatened Christiandom**, and exposed Christian West to the aggressive East. This prompted religious disorder and the use of cannon and gunpowder. **(Crusades.)**
 * Measom - **
 * Celina - **Kievan Rus
 * Kievan Rus'** was a loose federation of East Slavic tribes in Europe from the late 9th to the mid-13th century,] under the reign of the Rurik dynasty. The modern peoples of Belarus, Ukraine, and Russia all claim Kievan Rus' as their cultural inheritance. At its greatest extent in the mid-11th century, it stretched from the Baltic Sea in the north to the Black Sea in the south and from the headwaters of the Vistula in the west to the Taman Peninsula in the east, uniting the majority of East Slavic tribes.
 * Crystal - **schism of Christian Church-

-was a major contributor to the First Crusade. He was elected Pope on March 1088 but was in exile when elected. He regained enough support to enter Rome again in 1094. He was a part of many movements including the First Crusade. Richard I (8 September 1157 – 6 April 1199) was King of England from 6 July 1189 until his death. He also ruled as Duke of Normandy (as Richard IV), Duke of Aquitaine, Duke of Gascony, Lord of Cyprus, Count of Anjou, Count of Maine, Count of Nantes, and Overlord of Brittany at various times during the same period. He was the third of five sons of King Henry II of England and Eleanor of Aquitaine. He was known as Richard Cœur de Lion, or mainly Richard the Lionheart, even before his accession, because of his reputation as a great military leader and warrior.[1] The Muslims]] called him Melek-Ric or Malek al-Inkitar – King of England.[2] By the age of sixteen, Richard the Lionheart had taken command of his own army, putting down rebellions in Poitou against his father, King Henry II.[1] Richard was a central Christian commander during the Third Crusade, leading the campaign after the departure of Philip II of France and scoring considerable victories against his Muslim counterpart, Saladin, although he did not reconquer Jerusalem.[3] Richard spoke langue d'oïl, a French dialect, and Occitan, a Romance language spoken in southern France and nearby regions.[4 He lived in his Duchy of Aquitaine in the southwest of France and spent very little time in England, preferring to use his kingdom as a source of revenue to support his armies.[5 He was seen as a pious hero by his subjects.[6 He remains one of the few kings of England remembered by his epithet, rather than regnal number, and is an enduring iconic figure in England and France.[7 Domesday Book is a manuscript that records the great survey of much of England and parts of Wales completed in 1086. The original language was written in Latin. The Varangians or Varyags was the name given by Greeks and East Slavs to Vikings, who between the 9th and 11th centuries ruled the medieval state of Rus' and formed the Byzantine Varangian Guard. According to the 12th century Kievan Primary Chronicle, a group of Varangians known as the Rus' settled in Novgorod in 6370 (862) under the leadership of Rurik. Before Rurik, the Rus' might have ruled an earlier hypothetical polity. Rurik's relative Oleg conquered Kiev in 882 and established the state of Kievan Rus', which was later ruled by Rurik's descendants Saxon Invasion of England is fairly obscure, but a few legendary battles and heroes are generally agreed to. The invasion took place over a several hundred year period from approximately 450 to 650 A D ., beginning shortly after the Roman legions permanently left Britain. Most of the recorded battles, however, are between kingdoms that had already been settled for some time, since there are few records of the battles that occurred between the pagan invaders and the Britons who were displaced from southern and central England. This era is often called dark ages of British history and it is precisely the era during which the legends of King Arthur arose, but these legends are not considered here. The primary source for much of Britain's history during this period is Venerable Bede so knowledge of what transpired in the seventh century in the region of Northumbria is better understood than that which occurred in the southern regions in previous centuries. William the Conqueror was important because he established feudalism in Europe. Europe had no central government and was constantly being attacked by vikings and other barbarians, so feudalism was very important. Feudalism was a system of loyalty. Monarchs were loyal to lords and the other way around. Lords were loyal to knights and the other way around. Knights were loyal to both lords and peasants, and lords were loyal to peasants, who were also loyal to the lords and knights. Without feudalism, no work would have gotten done, and the kingdoms may not have been protected. Mehmet II was born on 29th March 1432, in Edirne. He was the son of Sultan Murad II. His mother was Huma Hatun. He was a tall, strong and muscular man. Mehmet II was a statesman and a military leader. He was also interested in literature, fine arts and monumental architecture. He was educated by famous scholar Aksemseddin. Mehmet was speaking seven languages fluently. Another worthy tribute to the Ottoman ruler is the famous portrait of him by Gentile Bellini. He also interested in philosophy and science. He invited Ali Kuscu the famous astronomer to the observatory in Istanbul. Mehmet II was ascended the throne in his 20th year.He took the name "conqueror" (fatih) after the conquest of Istanbul on 29th May 1453. The conquest of Istanbul spelled the end of the Byzantine Empire and entered a phase of urban revival under the wise and tolerant administrations of Mehmet and his immediate successors. The capture of Istanbul was followed by a long succession of campaigns which resulted in a tremendous extension of direct Ottoman rule. After the conquest of the city, Mehmed the Conqueror marched towards Morea and captured the cities of Greece one after another. However, he was threatened from the rear by the principality of Karaman and therefore turned to Anatolia to vanquish them and to annex their territory. He then conquered the area close to western Black Sea and appointed as governor Kızıl Ahmet who was the founder of the principality Isfen-diyar. Afterwards, he fought Uzun Hasan, the ruler of the Akkoyunlus and overcame him.Among those areas that fell to Mehmet II were Serbia, Greece, the Empire of Trezibizond, Wallachia, Bosnia, Karaman, Albania and several Venetian and Geneose maritime establishments. He ruled the Ottoman Empire for 30 years and joined 25 campaigns himself. He was a very strict statesman and a very brave soldier. He took place in front of his army in the wars and he encouraged his soldiers. The emperor had died on 3rd May 1481. He was buried in "Fatih Turbesi" (tomb), near the Mosque of Fatih in Istanbul. He was dressed in the simple and heroic manner of his great grandfather Çelebi Mehmed. His turban consisted of a mücevveze (a tall cylindrical headgear) in military style, wound round with coiled gauze. This special type of turban became fashionable among later sultans Also known as Charles the Great or Charles the First, he reigned from December 25, 800 to January 28, 814 as the King of the Franks from 768, the King of Italy from 774, and from 800 the first emperor in western Europe since the collapse of the Western Roman Empire three centuries earlier. At the beginning of his reign, he was the co-ruler with his brother Carloman the First after the death of his father in 768, but became the undisputed ruler of the Frankish Kingdom with the sudden death of his brother in 771. With Charlemagne as the ruler, he removed the Lormbards, a Germanic tribe who ruled a Kingdom in Italy from 568 to 774, and continued his father's work of policy towards the papacy (The Pope) to beomce its protector. Charlemagne was known for leading an incursion into Muslim Spain and campaigned against the peoples to his east, Christianizing them upon penalty of death, at times leading to events such as the Massacre of Verden. With reaching the peak of his reign in 800 when he as crowned as "Emperor" by Pope Leo the Third, he became the "Father of Europe" because his empire united most of Western Europe for the first time since the Roman Empire. During this rule, the Carolingian Renaissance took place where a period of cultural and intellectual activity with the Catholic Church, until his death in 814 with his son, Louis the Pious succedded him as Emperor after ruling his empire for over thirteen years. Charles Martel is remembered for his victory at Tours in 732 AD. He stopped the Muslim invasion that was threatening Central Europe. He is considered by some people the forefather of medieval chivalry He was a Christian saint, honored by the Anglican Church and the Catholic Church as the patron saint of Europe and students. He also founded twelve communities for monks at Subiaco, Italy (about 40 miles (64 km) to the east of Rome), before moving to Monte Cassino in the mountains of southern Italy. The Catholic Order of St Benedict and the Anglican Order of St Benedict are of later origin and, moreover, not an "order" as commonly understood but merely a confederation of autonomous congregations. Benedict's main achievement is his "Rule of Saint Benedict", containing precepts for his monks. It is heavily influenced by the writings of John Cassian, and shows strong affinity with the Rule of the Master. But it also has a unique spirit of balance, moderation and reasonableness (ἐπιείκεια, epieikeia), and this persuaded most religious communities founded throughout the Middle Ages to adopt it. As a result, his Rule became one of the most influential religious rules in Western Christendom. For this reason, Benedict is often called the founder of western monasticism. is a city and the administrative center of Vladimir Oblast, Russia, located on the Klyazma River, also prince of Novgorod, grand prince of Kiev, and ruler of Kievan Rus' from 980 to 1015, Vladimir's father was prince Sviatoslav of the Rurik dynasty.After the death of his father in 972, Vladimir, who was then prince of Novgorod, was forced to flee to Scandinavia in 976 after his brother Yaropolk had murdered his other brother Oleg and conquered Rus'. In Sweden, with the help from his relative Ladejarl Håkon Sigurdsson, ruler of Norway, he assembled a Varangian army and reconquered Novgorod from Yaropolk By 980 Vladimir had consolidated the Kievan realm from modern-day Ukraine to the Baltic Sea and had solidified the frontiers against incursions of Bulgarian, Baltic, and Eastern nomads. Originally a Slavic pagan, Vladimir converted to Christianity in 988 and Christianized the Kievan Rus'. They were a Germanic people that settled in northern Italy after the breakup of the Roman Empire in the 6th century. They gradually adopted the culture of the area and spread their influence to southern Italy. By 752, the Lombards were threatening Rome. Pope Stephen appealed to the Frankish king, Pepin the Short, who invaded Italy and defeated the Lombards. In 773 Pepin's son Charlemagne responded to another appeal for aid. He destroyed the Lombard kingdom and in 774 made himself king of Lombardy. During the 13th century the Lombards became famous as bankers. The area passed through many political changes, often falling under Austrian or other foreign domination, until it became part of the kingdom of Italy in 1861. The Saxons' earliest area of settlement is believed to have been Northern Albingia, an area approximately that of modern Holstein. This general area also included the probable homeland of the Angles. Saxons, along with the Angles, and other continental Germanic tribes, participated in the Anglo-Saxon settlement of Britain during and after the 5th century. The British-Celtic inhabitants of the isles tended to call all these groups Saxons collectively. It is unknown how many migrated from the continent to Britain, though estimates for the total number of Anglo-Saxon settlers are around two hundred thousand. During the Middle Ages, because of international Hanseatic trading routes and contingent migration, Saxons mixed with and had strong influences upon the languages and cultures of the North Germanic, Baltic peoples, Finnic peoples, Polabian Slavs and Pomeranian West Slavic people. It served as an Eastern Orthodox cathedral and seat of the Patriarchate of Constantinople,except between 1204 and 1261, when it was converted to a Roman Catholic cathedral under the Latin Empire. The building was a mosque from 29 May 1453 until 1931. It was then secularized and opened as a museum on 1 February 1935. The Church was dedicated to the Wisdom of God, the Logos, the second person of the Holy Trinity, its patronal feast taking place on 25 December, the commemoration of the Birth of the incarnation of the Logos in Christ. Famous in particular for its massive dome, it is considered the epitome of Byzantine architectureand is said to have "changed the history of architecture."It remained the world's largest cathedral for nearly a thousand years thereafter. It was designed by the Greek scientists Isidore of Miletus, a physicist, and Anthemius of Tralles, a mathematician. Thomas Aquinas, O.P. (28 January 1225 – 7 March 1274), also Thomas of Aquin or Aquino, was an Italian dominican friar and priest and an immensely influential philosopher and theologian in the tradition of scholasticism, within which he is also known as the "Doctor Angelicus", "Doctor Communis", and "Doctor Universalis". "Aquinas" is the demonym of Aquino, his home town. He was the foremost classical proponent of natural theology, and the father of Thomism. His influence on Western thought is considerable, and much of modern philosophy was conceived in development or refutation of his ideas, particularly in the areas of ethics, natural law, metaphysics, and political theory. The works for which he is best known are the Summa Theologica and the Summa contra Gentiles. Thomas is honored as a saint by the Catholic Church and is held to be the model teacher for those studying for the priesthood, and indeed the highest expression of both natural reason and speculative theology. In modern times, under papal directives, the study of his works was long used as a core of the required program of study for those seeking ordination as priests or deacons, as well as for those in religious formation and for other students of the sacred disciplines (Catholic philosophy, theology, history, liturgy, and canon law). Also honored as a Doctor of the Church, Thomas is considered the Church's greatest theologian and philosopher. Pope Benedict XV declared: "This (Dominican) Order ... acquired new luster when the Church declared the teaching of Thomas to be her own and that Doctor, honored with the special praises of the Pontiffs, the master and patron of Catholic schools. === During the Byzantine Empire, they considered themselves a continuation of the Roman Empire, so in that train of thought you may believe that the founders of Rome, Romulus, and Remus are the founders of the Byzantine Empire. In later time, historians renamed the later Roman Empire, the Byzantine Empire. The Empire in some sense also began in the 4th century C. E. when the romans set up their eastern capital in Constantinople, by the authority of Constantine. This great New city was built on the foundation of Byzantium (that sounds familiar:). As the Roman Empire continued to decline the byzantine civilizations particularly from the reign of Justinian onward, took on a life of its own and defining its own advancements and culture. === At its height, the Byzantine empire ruled over about 80 percent of the former Roman Empire's territory. But soon much of the lands of the former Western Roman Empire were lost. These were parts of modern countries of Algeria, Tunisia, Libya, Spain and Italy. Egypt, Syria, Jordan, Israel, Lebanon and Iraq were lost to Muslims in the 7th Century. Also modern countries of Romania, Bulgaria, Serbia, Bosnia-Herzegovina, Croatia, Macedonia and almost all other Balkan countries were at once parts of the Byzantine Empire. The core of the country were modern day Greece and Turkey. Turks came in the year 1071 and took most of what is now Turkey. He was the Byzantine Roman Emperor, it has been said that his reign brought the Roman Empire to its former glory in the ancient times. His first war against Persia lead to a treaty favorable to his side. in 532 the Nika Riots occurred and it nearly had Justinian flee Constantinople. but his two generals, Belisarius and Narses, gave him back imperial authority of Rome, North Italy, and Spain. He constructed a line of walls along the eastern and southeastern frontier. He collected all imperial statutes in a book he called the Codex. He also wrote institution a systematic and elementary treatise on the law, and the digest the writings of the jurists. All the books together are known as the Corpus Juris Civilis, The body of civil law. He wrote new laws named Novallae. (Brigid: Mr. Wooley, I'm sure you see that it was I who made these changes to Carlock and Latham's questions, but the other day, we were doing them all together and accidentally overwrote each other, so now I'm going back and fixing it for them. So don't worry, they did their work. :D) Theodora I (Greek: Θεοδώρα) (c. 500 – 28 June 548), was empress of the Roman (Byzantine) Empire and the wife of Emperor Justinian I. Theodora is perhaps the most influential and powerful woman in the Roman Empire's history. Some sources even mention her as empress regnant with Justinian I as her co-regent. She returned to Constantinople in 522 and gave up her former lifestyle, settling as a wool spinner in a house near the palace. Her beauty, wit and amusing character drew attention from Justinian, who wanted to marry her. However, he could not: He was heir of the throne of his uncle, Emperor Justin I, and a Roman law from Constantine's time prevented government officials from marrying actresses. Empress Euphemia, who liked Justinian and ordinarily refused him nothing, was against his wedding with an actress. However, Justin was fond of Theodora. In 525, when Euphemia had died, Justin repealed the law, and Justinian married Theodora. By this point, she already had a daughter (whose name has been lost). Justinian apparently treated the daughter and the daughter's son Athanasius as fully legitimate,[9] although sources disagree whether Justinian was the girl's father. Her influence on Justinian was so strong that after her death, he worked to bring harmony between the Miaphysites and the Chalcedonian Christians in the Empire, and he kept his promise to protect her little community of Miaphysite refugees in the Hormisdas Palace. Theodora provided much political support for the ministry of Jacob Baradaeus, and apparently personal friendship as well. Diehl attributes the modern existence of Jacobite Christianity equally to Baradaeus and to Theodora.[17] Olbia in Cyrenaica renamed itself Theodorias after Theodora. (It was a common event that ancient cities renamed themselves to honor an emperor or empress.) The city, now called Qasr Libya, is known for its splendid sixth-century mosaics.
 * Latham - **Pope Urban II
 * Murray - **Richard the Lionhearted-
 * Rabe - **Saladin- He was the founder of the Abbasid empire and the first Sultan of Egypt and Syria. al-Adid appointed Saladin vizier, a rare nomination of a Sunni Muslim to such an important position in the Shia Muslim-led caliphate.
 * Cortes - **John
 * Carlock - **The Magna Carta The Magna Carta said the king had to protect the freedom and rights of the church, to consult more with the Barons, and to guarantee certain freedoms to all free men. It was drafted by Archbishop Stephen Langton and the most powerful Barons of England. The main things that led to the Magna Carta was the fact king John lost many of the lands in France, he ignored his Barons rights, and took money from the church. June 15, 1215 King John was forced to sign the Magna Carta which was also known as the Magna Charter or Great Charter because it would limit his power and allowed the formation of a powerful parliament. It is important because it is considered to be the begginning of constitutional government in England and it demonstrated that the king could be limited by a written grant. It was also the first document to limit the power of the monarch.
 * Nugen - **The Doomsday Book
 * Achuff - **Vikings/Varagians
 * Anyona - Saxon Invasions **-
 * Davis - ** William the Conqueror:
 * Kossia - **Mehmed II
 * Nguyen - **Investiture - From the Latin (prepostition in and verb vestire, 'dress' from vestis 'rove') is a term for the formal installation of an incumbent as the insignia can include the formal dress and adornment which the etymology refers to, but it extends to other regalia and to a throne or other seat of office. It is used both as a generic term, and for more specific cases as coronation and enthronement.
 * Siraphet - **Charlemagne (2 April 742 - 28 January 814)
 * Baker - **Verdun
 * Ifasso - **
 * Banfield - **Benedict of Nursia
 * Suarez - ** Vladimir-
 * Ingle - **Yaroslav-
 * Traylor - ** Cyril and Methodius- They were Greek Byzantine brothers who were Christian missionaries along with the Slavic people of Great Moravia and Pannonia. They are accredited as the "Apostles to the Slavs" for shaping the view the Slavs had in that period. Cyril is also known as Constantine. Since the Slavic people didn't have a written language of their own, the brothers invented and alphabet for them. They also represented the Holy Roman Empire founded by Charlamagne. When friction developed, the brothers, unwilling to be a cause of dissension among Christians, went south toward Venice, and then from Venice to Rome to see the Pope, hoping to reach an agreement that would avoid quarreling between missionaries in the field. They brought with them the above-mentioned relics of Clement, third bishop of Rome after the Apostles. They arrived in Rome in 868 and were received with honor. Constantine entered a monastery there, taking the name Cyril, by which he is now remembered. However, he died only a few weeks thereafter.
 * Feagan - **Lombards
 * Franco - **Saxons were a confederation of Germanic tribes on the North German Plain, some of whom conquered large parts of Great Britain in the early Middle Ages and formed part of the merged group of Anglo-Saxons that would eventually carve out the first united Kingdom of England. Most Saxons remained in Germany, however, and resisted the expanding Frankish Empire through the leadership of the semi-legendary Saxon hero, Widukind.
 * Mattes - **Hagia Sophia-
 * Juell - **Thomas Aquinas
 * King - **Rurik- Varangian chieftain, who gained control of Ladoga in 862, what was at the time a prosperous trading outpost in the 8th and 9th centuries. He also founded the Rurik Dynasty that lasted until 1598. . Rurik was part of the Varangian Tribe who were called Rus's. (Wow Rus : Russia) The area at the time though, was called Kievan Rus. Later, he was to rule The Grand Duchy of Moscow and Tsardom of Russia. Said to be Vladimir The Bold's cousin, although I highly doubt it.
 * __ Review Questions: __**
 * Measom - **Who founded the Byzantine Empire?
 * Celina - **Why did Constantine relocate the capital from Rome? There was no government in the west, Constantine wanted control of the choke point, and barbarians were invading Rome.
 * Crystal - **What territory was controlled by the Byzantine Empire?
 * Latham - **Who was Justinian?
 * Murray - ** Who was Theodora (Justinian’s wife, not the 10th century Empress)? -
 * Rabe - **What is the significance of the Hagia Sofia?- former Greek Orthodox patriarchal basilica (church), later an imperial mosque, and now a museum in Istanbul, Turkey. from 537 until 1453, it served as an actual church. It first served as an Eastern Orthodox Cathedral until 1204-1261 it was a Roman Cathedral, and then a mosque in 1453.

The Persian Empire attacked Byzantine because they wanted their land, but the Persians were defeated near Nineveh  in 627 AD, the battles were fought from 224-628 AD. Crusaders attacked when Alexius IV Angelus told them Isaac II Angelus, the overthrown emperor they wanted to give the thrown back to, would give them a large amount of treasury and reunite the Greek Orthodox with the Roman Church. Isaac didn't give them the treasury so the Crusaders and Venetians attacked and shared the territory of the Byzantine Empire. The Empire fell in 1453 after an Ottoman army attacked.... a combustible compound emitted by a flame-throwing weapon and used to set light to enemy ships. It was first used by the Greeks besieged in Constantinople (673–78). It ignited on contact with water, and was probably based on naphtha and quicklime. was a Byzantine Emperor from the Macedonian dynasty who reigned from 10 January 976 to 15 December 1025. He was known in his time as Basil the Porphyrogenitus and Basil the Young to distinguish him from his supposed ancestor, Basil I the Macedonian.The early years of his long reign were dominated by civil war against powerful generals from the Anatolian aristocracy. Following their submission, Basil oversaw the stabilization and expansion of the eastern frontier of the Byzantine Empire, and above all, the final and complete subjugation of Bulgaria, the Empire's foremost European foe, after a prolonged struggle. For this he was nicknamed by later authors as "the Bulgar-slayer" (Greek: Βουλγαροκτόνος, Boulgaroktonos), by which he is popularly known. At his death, the Empire stretched from Southern Italy to the Caucasus and from the Danube to the borders of Palestine, its greatest territorial extent since the Muslim conquests four centuries earlier. Despite near-constant warfare, Basil also showed himself a capable administrator, reducing the power of the great land-owning families who dominated the Empire's administration and military, while filling the Empire's treasury. Of far-reaching importance was Basil's decision to offer the hand of his sister Anna to Vladimir I of Kiev in exchange for military support, which led to the Christianization of the Kievan Rus' and the incorporation of later successor nations of Kievan Rus' within the Byzantine cultural and religious tradition Both the Byzantine Empire and the Chinese dynasties of the post-classical era were rich and powerful; but each faced unique problems. Each was ruled by a powerful Emperor, the Byzantine Emperor was head of both church and state; the Chinese Emperor ruled under the Mandate of Heaven. All governmental officials in both answered directly to the Emperor. The Hellenic Greeks' legacy to the Byzantine Greeks was potent and massive. In the course of the three centuries (AD 284-602) of cultural overlap, during which the Hellenic civilization was not yet extinct, while the Byzantine civilization was already in being, the Byzantines rejected a number of key elements in Hellenism. City-states had. already become incapable of serving even as non-sovereign municipal organs of local self-government. The Byzantine Greeks rejected the city-states' pre-Christian religion, the outward-facing rectilinear architecture of the Hellenic temples in which the rites of this religion had been performed, the naturalistic representation of the human form in monumental sculpture (bas-reliefs, as well as statues), and Hellenic philosophy. These rejected elements of Hellenism were of its very essence, and it might have been thought that so radical a cultural revolution would have enabled the Byzantine Greeks to jump clear of their Hellenic past. However, the Byzantines' repudiation of their Hellenic heritage, though sweeping, was not complete. The Byzantines failed to make a break with some of the neturalistic post-Alexandrine Hellenic minor arts, and they were haunted by two major bequests from Hellenism, the Hellenic paideia and the Roman Empire (a political dispensation which was the antithesis of city-states and was the nemesis of the Hellenic city-states' failure to give the Hellenic World peace, unity, and order). The paideia and the Imperial régime dominated Byzantine Greek life, and their dominance was one of the causes of the Byzantine Greek civilization's breakdown and disintegration.In the Byzantine Greek World, there were still some city-states to be found, and some of these – for instance, Kherson (the Hellenic Khersonesos) in the Crimea and Neapolis (Naples) in southern Italy – were survivals from the Hellenic age of Greek history. Others, however – for instance, Amalfi on the Sorrento Peninsula, Ragusa, originally just off, and later just on, the coast of Dalmatia, and Venice in her lagoon – were settlements of refugees who had fled from their former homes during the age of anarchy and Völkerwanderung (circa AD 378-678). The constitutions of these Byzantine city-states differed, de facto, from those of the former municipal city-states of the Roman Empire, and still more from those of the previous sovereign Hellenic Greek city-states. The local bishop now usually played an important part in the civil administration, and in the Byzantine city-states in Italy and Dalmatia the principal lay officers had originally been imperial officials and retained this status in theory long after they had become, in practice, representatives of the local population. Moreover, there were only fourteen Byzantine city-states in all, including the nine on and off the Dalmatian coast, and all of them were on the fringes of a Byzantine Greek World whose heartland was Asia Minor with a European ferry-terminal at Constantinople. This heart-land was held by a resuscitated Roman Imperial Government, with Constantinople 'the New Rome' – as its capital. Compared with the territories under the East Roman Imperial Government's direct administration, the autonomous outlying city-states were insignificant so long as the East Roman Empire flourished. The Empire's slow decline and long-delayed fall opened the way for Venice – and for Ragusa, too, on a smaller scale – to become sovereign city-states, and for Naples to become eventually the capital of the Kingdom of the two Sicilies.The Byzantine Greeks' repudiation of the Hellenic city-states' religion was an ever. greater formal break with the Hellenic past than the liquidation of the city-states themselves. This religious revolution was symbolised in a change in the connotation of a famous name. For Greeks of the Hellenic Age, the name 'Hellenes' signified 'civilized men' in contrast to 'barbarians', for Greeks of the Byzantine Age, the name signified 'pagans' in contrast to 'Christians'. In other words the name 'Hellenes' meant, for the Byzantine Greeks, no longer 'insiders' but 'outsiders'; and these deplorable Greek-speaking recalcitrants, whose survival had been a reproach to Christian Greek civilization, had become extinct when their last representatives, the Maniots, had been converted to Christianity in the reign of the Emperor Basil I (867-86).This reversal of the connotation of the name 'Hellenes' was dramatic, but the actual break in the continuity of the Greeks' religious life was not so great as this terminological revolution suggests. The break was on the surface; it did not extend to the subsoil. The popular religion remained what it had been since the Neolithic Age. A genius loci who had been honoured in the Hellenic Age as a hero or as a tutelary goddess was now honoured as a saint or as 'the All Holy Mother of God' ('The Panayia', 'the Theotokos'). The religious revolution at the official level passed over the peasants' heads, and most Greeks were still peasants till within living memory. The reversal of the fortunes of Hellenism and Christianity was abrupt, because it could be, and was, brought about by acts of autocratic Roman Emperors. Constantine I and Licinius lifted the ban on Christianity in AD 313; Theodosius I imposed a ban on all non-Christian religions, except Judaism and the kindred religion of the Samaritans, in AD 380-92. The corresponding revolution in the architectural form of the Greek World's places of public worship was, by its nature, a change that could not be produced instantaneously by Imperial decrees; inevitably it was a gradual process.This architectural revolution had two aspects: in being transformed into a Christian church, the Hellenic temple, like the word 'Hellenic' itself, was turned inside-out, and its rectilinear lines were dissolved into curves. Visually, the second of these two revolutionary changes is the more striking; psychologically, the first is the more significant.The transfer of attention from the building's exterior to its interior was not only first in importance; it also came first chronologically. The Hellenic temple had been designed to please, not the god or goddess to whom it was dedicated, but the human public. The divinity's statue was housed – or immured – in lonely darkness within walls whose inner faces were not relieved either by windows or by decorations. The decorations were placed on the temple's outer faces, in the sunlight, for the delectation of the public. In the ensuing architectural revolution the contrast between the building's two faces was maintained, but their treatment was now reversed. This happened when the temple's lay-out was taken over for designing secular buildings in which the interior was to be used, not for housing the statue of a divinity, but by human beings.Human users needed the comforts, namely sunlight and decorations, which had been unnecessary for a statue – however holy, and however great a work of art, this inanimate representation of the divinity might have been. Therefore, when the temple's layout was adapted for designing a basilica,' in which ceremonial, judicial, administrative, and other public business was to be transacted indoors, the basilica, unlike the temple, had to have window. These might either be pierced in the walls or be provided by a clerestorey. The second alternative would require the replacement of the temple's traditional unitary gable roof by a roof in three sections, with the middle section elevated, in the clerestorey, to a higher level than the other two. For supporting the clerestorey and its roof, it was convenient to transfer to the interior the rows of columns that had previously been set along the long sides of the temple's outer face. Besides being useful for the architect, this transfer was agreeable for the human users of the basilica, since the columns were major elements in the decoration of the building.For the same reason, all the other decorations were now transferred from the exterior to the interior. They would be visible and enjoyable there, now that the interior was lighted by windows. The exterior could be stripped of its decorations, in order to embellish the interior with these, without any aesthetic loss for the human users. These, unlike statues, had sensibilities that required consideration. So long as the building had been a temple into which there was no admittance except, periodically, for a few priests, the public ordained its aesthetic satisfaction from the building by standing, or strolling round, outside it and enjoying its decorated exterior. Now that the interior of the building had become a place for the transaction of human business, no one would any longer wish to linger, gazing, outside; everyone would wish to enter promptly in order to get his business, inside the building, done. The exterior would not now receive more than a passing glance, so the architect could afford to leave it unadorned.The rectilinearity of a basilica might be broken by apses, since an internal recess would be a convenient location for a public officer who was giving audience or was passing judgement in public. The public could then fill the main body of the hall. An apse would have to be roofed by a semi-dome, and this would break the rectilinearity of the roof as well. The way was now open for the development of the secular pre-Christian basilica into the Byzantine Christian church, in which the secular officer, transacting business with the public, would be replaced by a priest, officiating in partnership with a congregation.In the architecture of the church, a square replaced the basilica's oblong ground-plan. This square was roofed by a circular dome, and the walls bulged out into apses roofed by semi-domes. These led the eye up, by stages, to the crown of the central dome. The Hellenic rectilinear gable-roofed oblong temple had thus been transformed into a non-rectilinear hollow pyramid. The roofing of a Byzantine church is pyramidal in its general effect; but, instead of mounting from its base to its apex in smooth surfaces meeting each other at sharp angles, the Byzantine church's roofing mounts in a crescendo of billowing curves. The optical effect is wave-like, and, to a modern observer, it feels like a piece of symphonic 'classical' Western music translated into visual form.The Byzantine architects never carried their transformation of the Hellenic temple to its logical conclusion. This would have been a dome-roofed round building on the plan that, in the Pantheon at Rome, had been executed in concrete at an early date in the second century of the Christian Era.' The Byzantines did not take up the Roman invention of concrete, and therefore, with a single famous exception, they did not build on the gigantic scale of the Baths of Caracalla and of Diocletian at Rome. The exception is, of course, the Church of the Ayia Sophia at Constantinople (532-7). The architects achieved their tour de force of building on this scale without using concrete by countering the outward thrust of the huge non-monolithic dome with massive buttresses, and by making the dome, at the first essay, of such light materials that it had to be replaced (558-62).The sixth-century Church of Saints Sergius and Bacchus at Constantinople ('the Little Ayia Sophia') is a variation on the plan of the Great Ayia Sophia, executed on a miniature scale, but the normal scale of later Byzantine churches is still smaller. The eleventh-century churches of the Kapnikarea and the Saints Theodore at Athens are more characteristic, in both their scale and their style. The still tinier Old Metropolitan Church at Athens, whatever its date, conveys the quintessence of the Byzantine ecclesiastical architects' spirit.The abandonment of monumental sculpture was, no doubt, partly a consequence of impoverishment. Statues of Emperors and even of popular racing charioteers continued to be made until the Empire's economic collapse in the East in and after AD 602. But, though statues of human beings were still tolerated till then, statuary was too intimately associated with Hellenism, and Hellenism with paganism, to be looked upon with favour by the Christian ecclesiastical authorities. Moreover, when Hellenic temples were replaced by Christian churches, there was no longer a place for the statue of the divinity to whom a temple was dedicated. The statue had been the focal point of a temple's interior; the focal point of a church's interior was the place at which the rite of the Eucharist was performed. There was no room in a church for a rival centre of attraction in the form of a dominating statue. Nor could the Christian Trinity-in-Unity or the duality-in-unity of the person of Christ have been represented acceptably in the round. Christians fell out with each other in trying to convey these theological paradoxes even in the supple medium of the vocabulary of Hellenic Greek philosophy. In the use of art in the service of Christianity, the Byzantines eschewed sculpture in the round, and bas-relief too. They compensated for this renunciation by decorating the inner walls of their churches two-dimensionally with mosaics and paintings.Even the flat representation of human forms is a breach of a Jewish tabu which the Christian Church has never avowedly repudiated; and when it has failed, as it has at most times and places, to observe the second of the Mosaic Ten Commandments, the Church has hiad periodic misgivings about its laxity on this important point. These misgivings have produced occasional outbursts of iconoclasm. There has been the Protestant outburst in Western Christendom in and after the sixteenth century; and this was anticipated by an outburst in the eighth century which was let loose by an East Roman Emperor, Leo III (717-41).The conflict in the East Roman Empire over eikons went on from 726 to 843. During these 117 years, except for the twenty-six years 787-813, the iconoclasts were in power in the Empire, and they enforced their veto on images in that part of Eastern Orthodox Christendom (and it was the greater part) over which the East Roman Imperial Government's authority was effective in the eighth and ninth centuries. In 843 the conflict was ended by a compromise in which the champions of images got the best of the bargain. Two-dimensional images were reinstated, and it was agreed that the devotion paid to them was not to be condemned as idolatrous. The images, so their champions claimed, were not being worshipped in themselves; they were being venerated as visual symbols of the divine or saintly persons whom they depicted. This decision, which has never been called in question, demonstrated that the East Roman Imperial government's autocratic power was not so potent as public feeling. A majority of the Eastern Orthodox Christian public was deeply attached to the cult of images, and its devotion to them had not been weakened by two bouts of repression which, between them, ran to ninety-one years. In the end the iconoclastic-minded minority was compelled to recognize that, in spite of having had the Imperial Government on its side, it must acquiesce in a compromise that was a thinly disguised defeat. The settlement of AD 843 ensured that the two-dimensional representation of human form should be countenanced in Eastern Orthodox Christendom. The veneration of eikons, both publicly in church and privately in the home, had been vindicated.To judge by such evidence as we have for the style of the Hellenic art of painting, the Byzantine and the Hellenic treatments of the human figure were worlds apart. Their difference in style reflected a difference of spirit and aim. Hellenic pictures, like Hellenic bas-reliefs and statues and busts, were attempts to give a naturalistic portrayal of the human body, on the assumption that this was the best, and indeed the only possible, way of revealing human nature. On the other hand, Byzantine eikons were attempts to adumbrate in visual form the invisible soul, on the assumption that the soul is Man's essence; and Byzantine painters and mosaicists did not hesitate to abandon naturalism if, by misrepresenting bodily appearances, they could succeed in conveying spiritual realities that a naturalistic treatment of the body would have failed to express. I have elsewhere suggested that the Early Hellenic decorators of Protogeometric vases broke with the Minoan style of Mycenaean naturalism deliberately, and that their successors in the age of mature Geometric art were also acting deliberately when they 'geometricized' the figures of human beings and horses that they admitted into their subtly worked out abstract patterns. These are only guesses. But, in the apparently parallel case of the non-naturalistic style of the Byzantine eikons, we have positive evidence that their departure from naturalism was not the involuntary consequence of a loss of mastery of the technique of painting or mosaicmaking in the naturalistic Hellenic style. There are surviving specimens of the Byzantines' continuing use of this Hellenic style, side by side with their own non-naturalistic style, the Hellenic style was used by the Byzaatines mainly for the trivial decoration of secular buildings; but they also used it, on occasion, for treating solemn religious themes. Moreover, their missionaries carried this Hellenic style, as well as the Byzantine style, to the regions beyond the East Roman Empire's frontiers that they converted. Examples of works in this Hellenic style survive in Russia and Serbia. Thus, in the field of painting and mosaic-making, the Byzantines' attitude towards their heritage from Hellenism was equivocal; and so was their attitude towards Hellenic philosophy. Christian theology had been elaborated in terms of Hellenic philosophy. The Greek texts – and these are the original texts – of the Christian Church's creeds are composed in the Hellenic philosophy's vocabulary, and the value of Hellenic philosophy's service to Christianity was always recognized even by the strictest guardians of Eastern Christian Orthodoxy. Moreover, Christian Greeks preserved, by the laborious copying of manuscripts, the writings of those Hellenic philosophers who happened to have written in a form of Attic Greek that had passed the censorship of the Atticizing purists of the Augustan Age. They also preserved even Aristotle's unpolished lecture notes. Yet, in the Byzantine Age, to study Plato's works for their content, and not just for their style, was usually a dangerous adventure. The institutes of philosophy at Athens were closed by the Emperor Justinian I in AD 529. Seven philosophers who were unwilling to become apostates from Hellenism to Christianity had to find asylum in the Persian Empire; and they were able to return home, without having to choose between conversion and penalization, only because the Persian Emperor exacted from Justinian a special amnesty for them.' These were the last Greek students of Hellenic philosophy who were able to follow their bent with impunity. Photios in the ninth century, Michael Psellos and John Italos in the eleventh century, and Yemistos Plethon in the fifteenth century, each in turn got into trouble on this account. Italos and Plethon asked for trouble; Photios and Psell6s did not; they tried to be discreet, but this did not save them. They were suspected of having secretly relapsed into the pre-Christian paganism that Plethon afterwards professed openly and aggressively. The two important elements in the legacy of Hellenism that the Byzantines failed to shake off were the Hellenic paideia and the Roman Imperial régime. In the latter part of the sixth century, the monks succeeded in putting the paideia out of action temporarily, but it was resuscitated in the ninth century. In the Eastern Orthodox Church's eyes the Hellenic paideia was innocuous, because all that it inculcated was an adulation of literary form. It had deliberately divorced form from content, and it did not take the content seriously; it did not regard this as having an intrinsic value of its own. As for the Roman Imperial regime, the Hellenes had begun by resenting and resisting its imposition but had ended by recognizing retrospectively that it had given the Hellenic civilization an unexpected and perhaps undeserved new lease of life. After that, the Hellenes had identified themselves with the Roman Empire and had appropriated it. The Greeks' captivation of their Roman conquerors was completed when they took to calling themselves Romans (Rhomaioi) instead of Hellenes. Now that the word 'Hellenes' had come to signify 'pre-Christian Greeks', the Christian Greeks needed a new appellation for themselves, and in 'Rhomaioi' they found the word that they were seeking. In Byzantine Greek parlance, 'Rhomaioi' came to mean, not Latin-speaking Romans, but 'Greeks who were Eastern Orthodox Christians', in contrast to outsiders, extinct and extant. The extinct outsiders were the Hellenes; the extant outsiders were the inextinguishable barbarians beyond the East Roman Empire's frontiers, and, in Byzantine Greek eyes, these now included Old Rome's barbarized and non-Greek-speaking inhabitants An icon is a religious work of art, most commonly a painting, from Eastern Christianity and in certain Eastern Catholic churches. Throughout history, various religious cultures have been inspired or supplemented by concrete images to the degree which images are used or permitted, and their functions - whether they are for instruction or inspiration, treated as sacred objects of veneration (the act of honoring a saint) or worship, or simply applied as ornament - depend upon the tenets of a given religion in a given place and time. In Eastern Christianity and other icon-painting Christian traditions, the icon is usually a flat panel painting depicting a holy being or object such as Jesus, Mary, saints, angels, or the cross. There are different forms in which they can be made into, such as being cast in metal, carved in stone, painted on wood, embroidered on cloth, done in mosaic or fresco work, printed on paper or metal, and etc. At first, the creation of free-standing, three-dimensional sculptures of holy figures was resisted by Christians for many centuries, out of the belief that daimones (benevolent or benign nature spirits) inhabited pagan sculptures, and also to make a clear distinction between Christian and pagan art.Comparable images from Western Christianity are generally not described as "icons", although "iconic" may be used to describe a static style of devotional image. Although common in translated works from Greek or Russian, in English iconography does not mean icon painting, and "iconographer" does not mean an artist of icons, which are painted or carved, not "written", as they are in those languages. Baker - Why were icons an issue in the Christian Church? How was the issue resolved?
 * Cortes - **Who was Belisarius, and how was he significant to Byzantine history?
 * Carlock - **Who were the various empires/kingdoms/people that attacked the Byzantine Empire during it’s thousand year existence?
 * Nugen - ** What was Greek Fire?
 * Achuff - **Who was Basil II (aka: Basil the Bulgar Slayer)
 * Anyona - **What impacts did the Arab/Muslim invasions have on the Byzantine Empire after 7th century? What was the impact on Western Europe?
 * Davis - ** How did the Byzantine compare with that of China at the time?
 * Kossia - **What impact did Hellenistic thought have on the Byzantine Empire?. (Let’s see if you were paying attention…What in the blue blazes is “Hellenistic thought” and what forces produced it?)
 * Nguyen - **What is Caesaropapism?- Caesaropapism is the idea of combining the power of secular government with the religious power, or making it superior to the spiritual authority of the Church; especially concerning the connection of the Church with government. The term Caesaropapism (Cäseropapismus) was coined by Max Weber, who defined it as follows: “a secular, caesaropapist ruler... exercises supreme authority in ecclesiastic matters by virtue of his autonomous legitimacy”. According to Weber's political sociology, Caesaropapism entails “the complete subordination of priests to secular power. In its extreme form, Caesaropapism is a political theory in which the head of state, notably the Emperor ('Caesar', by extension an 'equal' King), is also the supreme head of the church ('papa', pope or analogous religious leader). In this form, it inverts theocracy (or hierocracy in Weber) in which institutions of the Church control the state. However, both Caesaropapism and Theocracy are systems in which there is no Separation of Church and State and the two form parts of a single power structure.
 * Siraphet - **What’s an icon (besides the little picture that’s on your computer)?
 * Ifasso - **

The differences between Roman Catholicism and Eastern Orthodoxy are that the pope of Rome has absolute authority over all bishops throughout Christianity. In the Eastern Orthodoxy the pope does not have as much power as the Roman pope. The church services of both churches are in different languages. Catholic priest cannot get married but Eastern Orthodoxy priest can be married before ordination. Eastern Orthodoxy do not believe in purgatory.

The main reason the Great Schism happened was because the bishops in the Eastern Churches or the Greek Churches denied and rejected the primacy of the Roman Pontiff as head of the Universal Church. Also, some other reasons were: -Iconoclasm—The Eastern Emperor Leo III the Isaurian (in the eighth century), responding in part to the challenge of Islam in his domain, outlawed the veneration of icons. While many Orthodox bishops in the Byzantine Empire rejected this policy, some Eastern bishops cooperated with it, believing the emperor to be God's agent on earth. The Popes—that is, the bishops of Rome during this period—spoke out strongly both against the policy itself and against the emperor's authority over the church, a tradition which came to be known in the West as Caesaropapism -Jurisdiction—Disputes in the Balkans, Southern Italy, and Sicily over whether the Western or Eastern Church had jurisdiction. and -Weakening of other Patriarchates—Following the rise of Islam as a political force, the relative weakening of the influence of the Patriarchs of Antioch, Jerusalem, and Alexandria, resulting in Rome and Constantinople emerging as the two real power centers of Christendom, with often competing interests.
 * Banfield - **What caused the Great Schism of 1054?

The loss of Byzantine's Anatolian heartland was a significant loss for them. The defeat was "its death blow, though centuries remained before the remnant fell. The themes in Anatolia were literally the heart of the empire, and within decades after Manzikert, they were gone." The fortunes of the Roman Empire had sunk to their lowest. The armies of the East were dispersed in all directions, because the Turks had over-spread, and gained command of, countries between the Black Sea and the Hellespont, and the Aegean Sea and Mediterranean Sea, and the various bays, especially those which wash Pamphylia, Cilicia, and empty themselves into the Mediterranean Sea. Feagan - Who were Cyril and Methodius and why are they significant? They were Christian missionaries for the Roman Church who were sent to Slavic people. To translate the Bible and other literature into a language they would understand, they created the Glagolitic alphabet, which ended up being the earliest known Slavic language. After their death, the pope exiled their disciples, who ran to the First Bulgarian Empire. There, they made the Cyrillic script which replaced Glagolitic, became the official language of the Bulgarian Empire, and became the standard script for most Orthodox Slavic Empires. They helped spread Christianity throughout Eastern Europe. The **House of Seljuq** was a Turkish Sunni Muslim dynasty that gradually adopted Persian culture and contributed to the Turko-Persian tradition in the medieval West and Central Asia. The Seljuqs established both the Great Seljuq Empire and Sultanate of Rum, which at their total height stretched from Anatolia through Persia, and were targets of the First Crusade. The Seljuqs originated from the //Qynyk// branch of the Oghuz Turks who in the 9th century lived on the periphery of the Muslim world, north of the Caspian and Aral seas in their Yabghu Khaganate of the Oghuz confederacy, in the Kazakh Steppe of Turkestan. During the 10th century, due to various events, the Oghuz had come into close contact with Muslim cities. The Ottoman Turks (or Osmanlı Turks) were the Turkish-speaking population of the Ottoman Empire who formed the base of the state's military and ruling classes. Reliable information about the early history of Ottoman Turks is scarce, but they take their Turkish name, Osmanlı (corrupted in some European languages as "Ottoman"), from the house of Osman I (reigned ca. 1299-1326), the founder of the dynasty that ruled the Ottoman empire for 624 years. After the expansion from its home in Bithynia, the Ottoman principality began incorporating other Turkish-speaking Muslims and non-Turkish Christians, becoming the Ottoman Turks and ultimately the Turks of the present. The Ottoman Turks blocked all land routes to Europe by conquering the city of Constantinople, the capital city of the Byzantine-East Roman Empire, and Europeans had to find other ways to trade with Eastern countries.
 * Suarez - **How many Patriarchs governed the Christian Church (prior to 1054), and where were they located?
 * Ingle - **Who led the Crusade of 1204 and what impact did it have on Constantinople?
 * Traylor - **What is the importance of the Battle of Manzikert (1071)?
 * Franco - **What areas of Europe were converted to Roman Catholicism, and what areas were converted to Orthodoxy?
 * Mattes - **Who were the Seljuk Turks?
 * Juell - **Who were the Ottoman Turks?

A loose federation of East Slavic Tribes in Europe whose economy was based on agriculture, using the slash and burn method. However, after it's split in the late 11th century, it was further weakened by the fall of Constantinople, who was the main trading and cultural partner, and it's lost trade route. It fell to the Mongols in the 1240's. Under Vladimir the Great and his most notable achievement, was the Christianization of Rus, adopting the Eastern Byzantine Rite. By being so close to the Byzantine Empire, the culture there flowed into Rus which further influenced the Renaissance. The Vikings—The Vikings (from Old Norse víkingr) were seafaring North Germanic people who raided, traded, explored, and settled in wide areas of Europe, Asia, and the North Atlantic islands from the late 8th to the mid-11th centuries. The Vikings explored the northern islands and coasts of the North Atlantic, ventured south to North Africa and east to Russia, Constantinople, and the Middle East. was a loose federation[3] of East Slavic tribes in Europe from the late 9th to the mid-13th century,[4] under the reign of the Rurik dynasty. The modern peoples of Belarus, Ukraine, and Russia all claim Kievan Rus' as their cultural inheritance.[5] At its greatest extent in the mid-11th century, it stretched from the Baltic Sea in the north to the Black Sea in the south and from the headwaters of the Vistula in the west to the Taman Peninsula in the east,[6][7] uniting the majority of East Slavic tribes.[3] Kievan Rus' begins with the rule (882–912) of Prince Oleg, who extended his control from Novgorod south along the Dnieper river valley in order to protect trade from Khazar incursions from the east[3] and moved his capital to the more strategic Kiev. Sviatoslav I (died 972) achieved the first major expansion of Kievan Rus' territorial control. Vladimir the Great (980–1015) introduced Christianity with his own baptism and, by decree, that of all the inhabitants of Kiev and beyond. Kievan Rus' reached its greatest extent underYaroslav I (1019–1054); his sons assembled and issued its first written legal code, the Rus' Justice, shortly after his death.[8] The state declined beginning in the late 11th century and during the 12th century, disintegrating into various rival regional powers.[9] It was further weakened by economic factors such as the collapse of Rus' commercial ties to Byzantium due to the decline of Constantinople[10] and the accompanying diminution of trade routes through its territory. The state finally fell to the Mongol invasion of the 1240s. A moldboard is a plow, better than the ones used before it that were based on Mediterranean models, and made to work the soil of France and Germany. It was introduced in the 9th century and is significant because it helped the serfs make more crops. This helped the regional governments become stronger and since the Vikings settled down, there was a lot of population growth. Quoted from the book, "Population growth encouraged further economic innovation. More people created new markets." People needed more area to farm so they could sell stuff, and they began to settle all over Europe. To bring the peasants to their land, the landlords became less harsh on the serfs, giving them more independence, and this led to monasteries, schools, and eventually universities forming. Feudalism gradually became more centralized, such as in the case of William the Conqueror's England. --Written by Brigid Causes of the crusades: The Crusades were an attempt by the Catholic church to re-gain control, authority and power over provinces in the Middle-East. Pilgrims were denied the right to visit the holy lands by the Muslims and the Kingdom of Christendom wanted to free Eastern Christians from islamic rule. Jerusalem was the usual target - it was of historical, spiritual and religious importance to Christian nations and so it had to be seized. The Pope had the ability to instigate a Crusade, and he managed to convince an overly large amount of people to participate. Everyone in the Middle Ages was devoted to the Lord and committed themselves to following the teachings of the bible. The Church promised everyone who was involved a remission of their sins and protection of land - almost as a persuasion.
 * King - **What is Kievan Rus? On what was its economy based? What were its cultural influences?
 * Measom - **Kievan Rus was founded by Slavic peoples and Norse traders from Scandinavia. We more commonly refer to these traders as…?
 * Celina - **If the Roman Empire was the first Rome, and the Byzantine Empire was the Second Rome, who was the Third Rome?
 * Crystal - **What are the similarities between Russia and the Byzantine Empire?
 * Latham - **Who were Rurik, Vladimir, Yaroslav?
 * Murray - **What led to the demise of Kievan Rus? -
 * Rabe - **Who were the Tatars? ethnic group in Eastern Europe and Northern Asia . The Tatars are a native people of the Volga region of Russia, Tatarstan and Bashkortostan.
 * Cortes - **What’s a moldboard? Why is it significant enough to make my review sheet?
 * Carlock - **Differentiate between manorialism, monasticism, scholasticism, and feudalism? Manorialism is a political, economic, and social system where people paid the lord for using his land, free tenants paid rent or provided military service while the peasants owed rent and labor to the lord. Monasticism is a religious practice usually secluded in a community to get closer to God by avoiding sin, it also helped spread Christianity through a pagan world. Until the 16th century scholasticism was the dominant philosophical approach in Europe. Philosophers and theologians attempted to reconcile Christian theology with the Greek philosophy; the Summa Theologica is the most ambitious of scholastic works. Feudalism is a system of government during the middle ages. kings granted land to the barons in exchange for soldiers. Barons gave knights land is they swore their loyalty and devotion to serve in battle. Knights gave serfs land but they had to give them gifts in return. Every class in the Medieval era had their basic needs fulfilled.
 * Nugen - **Who is St. Thomas Aquinas, and what does he do to the Catholic Church during the Middle Ages?
 * Achuff - **What were the causes of the Crusades? What were the impacts of the Crusades? How many were there? Which ones were successful?

Effects of the Crusades: Each crusade had its individual effects depending on the circumstances. In general, the Crusades allowed Arabian medical practices and architectural knowledge to be transferred to the West. Conquered towns helped to provide extra income for the treasury from furs, ivory and spices. It was uplift to Christians worldwide, knowing their sacred place of worship was securely in the hands of fellow believers.

Number:9 Successful: There were eight of them, and only the first was an unqualified success. But on the other hand, it established Crusader control over all modern Israel-Palestine, a fair part of Jordan, and all the Lebanese-Syrian coastline, all of which lasted till 1187 or 88 years, while the coastline lasted for another 70 years at least. In contrast, Israel has had a much smaller area for only 60 years.
 * **[|The First Crusade] [|Timeline of the First Crusade] [|The Second Crusade] [|The Third Crusade] [|The Fourth Crusade] [|The Childrens Crusade] [|The Minor Crusades]** || **[|End of the Medieval Crusades] [|Cause of the Crusades] [|Effects of the Crusades] [|Crusades Timeline] [|Kingdom of Jerusalem]** **[|Crusaders]** **[|Holy Land Pilgrimage]** ||

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 * Anyona - ** What’s a serf? (besides waves at the beach)- Serfs were the lowest level of workers in most areas of medieval Europe, though in some there were slaves, who were at a lower level. Serfs were not slaves, but were not free to leave the land where they worked. Their obligation with their feudal lord was mutual; he had obligations to them, to provide a place and protect them, just as they had obligations to him, to give a part of the crop, or later, money for rent. Serfs could not be bought or sold. They belonged to the land, not the lord. If the lord sold the land, they went with it. The new owner did not have the option of moving them off the land. ======

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Most serfs worked in agriculture, and lived on the land. Some lived in towns or villages, and formed the lowest level of laborers there. They could be cooks and helpers. They could work in such trades as weaving. Miners were serfs of a sort. They could be masons' helpers. They did not usually occupy positions that involved mastery of a craft, such as the master masons, or the best cooks, who worked entirely for hire and were free. The serfs without plots of land were called villeins, a word related to the word village. ======

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Various customs in various places allowed the serfs to become free, meaning they could leave the land they were born on and go elsewhere. In some cases, when a king needed to populate a new port, for example, they could be freed by running away and staying in the new town for a year. In other cases, such as after the Black Death, they were bribed off their land to farm lands of other lords that had been depopulated. The result is that serfdom ended in some places several generations before the end of the Middle Ages. ====== The investiture contest was a controversy over the right a secular rulers to invest a bishop or abbot with the symbols of his office, the ring and pastoral staff. The practice was first condemned by Pope Gregory VII in 1075 as an unwelcome secular interference in the appointment of Ecclesiastics. In England Henry I reached a compromise with Archbishop Anselm in 1106, whereby he gave up investiture while retaining his right to receive homage from bishops in respect of their estates. Charlemagne (/ˈʃɑrlɨmeɪn/; 2 April 742 – 28 January 814), also known as Charles the Great (German: Karl der Große;[1] Latin: Carolus or Karolus Magnus) or Charles I, was the King of the Franks from 768, the King of Italy from 774, and from 800 the first emperor in western Europe since the collapse of the Western Roman Empire three centuries earlier. The expanded Frankish state he founded is called the Carolingian Empire. The oldest son of Pepin the Short and Bertrada of Laon, Charlemagne became king in 768 following the death of his father. He was initially co-ruler with his brother Carloman I. Carloman's sudden death in 771 under unexplained circumstances left Charlemagne as the undisputed ruler of the Frankish Kingdom. Charlemagne continued his father's policy towards the papacy and became its protector, removing the Lombards from power in northern Italy, and leading an incursion into Muslim Spain. He also campaigned against the peoples to his east, Christianizing them upon penalty of death, at times leading to events such as the Massacre of Verden. Charlemagne reached the height of his power in 800 when he was crowned as "Emperor" by Pope Leo III on Christmas Day at Old St. Peter's Basilica. Called the "Father of Europe" (pater Europae),[2] Charlemagne's empire united most of Western Europe for the first time since the Roman Empire. His rule spurred the Carolingian Renaissance, a period of cultural and intellectual activity within the Catholic Church. Both the French and German monarchies considered their kingdoms to be descendants of Charlemagne's empire. Charlemagne died in 814 after having ruled as Emperor for just over thirteen years. He was laid to rest in his imperial capital of Aachen in today's Germany. His son Louis the Pious succeeded him as Emperor The Hundred Years' War is the name modern historians have given to what was a series of related conflicts, fought over a 116-year period, between the Kingdom of England and the Kingdom of France, and later Burgundy; beginning in 1337, and ending in 1453. Historians group these conflicts under the same label for convenience.
 * Davis - ** What is investiture, and why was it so controversial? :
 * Kossia - **Charlemagne established the Holy Roman Empire…Why? How? What happened after that?
 * Nguyen - **What’s the significance of the 100 Years War? -

The war owes its historical significance to a number of factors such as the introduction of new weapons and tactics which eroded the older system of feudal armies dominated by heavy cavalry; the first "standing armies" in Western Europe since the time of the Western Roman Empire; changes in the roles of nobles and peasants, and over-all key developments in the early growth of nations and new monarchies. It is often viewed as one of the most significant conflicts in the history of medieval warfare. .
 * (Hey Francois - We haven't gotten to the 1800s yet. The next time you wikipedia something, make sure that you're looking at the right topic (this covers the Hundred Days not the Hundred Years War - Wooley) **